what was the only country to be expelled from the league of nations?

League of Nations
1939–1941 semi-official emblem
Anachronous earth map in 1920–1945, showing the League of Nations and the world
Germination	June 28, 1919
Extinction	Apr 18, 1946
Headquarters	Palais des Nations, Geneva  Switzerland
Membership	63 fellow member states
Official languages	French, English, Spanish
Secretary General	Seán Lester (most recent)

The League of Nations was an international organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference in 1919–1920. The League's goals included disarmament, preventing war through collective security, settling disputes between countries through negotiation, diplomacy and improving global welfare. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a central shift in thought from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked an armed force of its ain and then depended on the Neat Powers to enforce its resolutions, go on to economic sanctions which the League ordered, or provide an regular army, when needed, for the League to utilise. However, they were often very reluctant to practise then. Benito Mussolini stated that "The League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out."

Contents

• 1 Origins
• 2 Symbols
• 3 Languages
• iv Structure
  • 4.1 Secretariat and Associates
    • 4.i.ane Secretaries-general of League of Nations (1920 – 1946)
    • four.1.2 Presidents of Full general Assembly of League (1920–1946)
  • 4.two Council
  • four.iii Other bodies
• 5 Members
• six Mandates
• 7 Successes
  • seven.1 Åland Islands
  • 7.2 Republic of albania
  • 7.3 Austria and Hungary
  • 7.four Upper Silesia
  • 7.5 Memel
  • 7.6 Greece and Bulgaria
  • 7.vii Saar
  • 7.8 Mosul
  • 7.9 Liberia
  • 7.ten Other successes
• 8 Full general Weaknesses
• 9 Specific Failures
  • 9.1 Cieszyn, 1919
  • nine.2 Vilna, 1920
  • 9.3 Invasion of the Ruhr Valley, 1923
  • 9.iv Corfu, 1923
  • nine.5 Mukden Incident, 1931–1933
  • ix.vi Chaco War, 1932-1935
  • 9.7 Italian invasion of Abyssinia, 1935–1936
  • 9.viii Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939
  • 9.nine Axis re-ammunition
• 10 Demise and Legacy
• 11 Meet besides
• 12 Notes
• thirteen References
• 14 External links
• 15 Credits

Afterwards a number of notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis Powers in the 1930s. The onset of the Second World War suggested that the League had failed in its primary purpose–to avoid any future world war. The United Nations Organization replaced it later on the end of the war and inherited a number of agencies and organizations founded by the League.

Origins

A commemorative card depicting American President Wilson and the "Origin of the League of Nations"

A predecessor of the League of Nations in many respects were the international Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907). The "Hague Confederation of States" equally the Neo-Kantian pacifist Walther Schücking called it, formed a universal alliance aiming at disarmament and the peaceful settlement of disputes through arbitration. The concept of a peaceful community of nations had previously been described in Immanuel Kant'southward Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch (1795). Post-obit the failure of the Hague Peace Conferences - a third briefing had been planned for 1915 - the idea of the actual League of Nations appears to accept originated with British Foreign Secretary Edward Gray, and it was enthusiastically adopted by the Democratic Usa President Woodrow Wilson and his counselor Colonel Edward M. House as a means of avoiding bloodshed like that of Earth War I. The creation of the League was a centerpiece of Wilson's Fourteen Points for Peace, specifically the concluding bespeak: "A general clan of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to groovy and minor states alike."

The Paris Peace Conference accepted the proposal to create the League of Nations (French: Société des Nations, German: Völkerbund) on Jan 25, 1919. The Covenant of the League of Nations was drafted past a special committee, and the League was established past Part I of the Treaty of Versailles, which was signed on June 28, 1919. Initially, the Charter was signed by 44 states, including 31 states which had taken function in the war on the side of the Triple Entente or joined it during the conflict. Despite Wilson's efforts to establish and promote the League, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1919, the United States neither ratified the Charter nor joined the League due to opposition in the U.Due south. Senate, specially influential Republicans Henry Cabot Social club of Massachusetts and William East. Borah of Idaho, together with Wilson'southward refusal to compromise.

The League held its kickoff meeting in London on January 10, 1920. Its first activeness was to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, officially catastrophe Earth War I. The headquarters of the League moved to Geneva on Nov one, 1920, where the first full general assembly of the League was held on November xv, 1920 with representatives from 41 nations in attendance.

David Kennedy, a professor at Harvard Police Schoolhouse, examined the League through the scholarly texts surrounding it, the establishing treaties, and voting sessions of the plenary. Kennedy suggests the League is a unique moment when international diplomacy was "institutionalized", every bit opposed to the pre-Earth State of war I methods of police force and politics^[1].

Symbols

The League of Nations had neither an official flag nor logo. Proposals for adopting an official symbol were made during the League's commencement in 1921, only the member states never reached agreement. However, League of Nations organizations used varying logos and flags (or none at all) in their ain operations. An international contest was held in 1929 to find a design, which once more failed to produce a symbol. 1 of the reasons for this failure may take been the fearfulness by the member states that the power of the supranational organization might supervene upon them. Finally, in 1939, a semi-official emblem emerged: ii five-pointed stars inside a blueish pentagon. The pentagon and the 5-pointed stars were supposed to symbolize the 5 continents and the five races of mankind. In a bow on top and at the bottom, the flag had the names in English language (League of Nations) and French (Société des Nations). This flag was used on the building of the New York Globe's Fair in 1939 and 1940.

Languages

The official languages of the League of Nations were French, English and Spanish (from 1920). In 1921, there was a proposal by the Under-Secretarial assistant General of the League of Nations, Dr. Nitobe Inazō, for the League to accept Esperanto as their working language. Ten delegates accepted the proposal with only i vox against, the French consul, Gabriel Hanotaux. Hanotaux did not similar it that the French linguistic communication was losing its position equally the international language of affairs and saw Esperanto equally a threat. Two years later the League recommended that its member states include Esperanto in their educational curricula.

Construction

The League had 3 main organs: a secretariat (headed by the Full general Secretary and based in Geneva), a Council, and an Assembly. The League likewise had numerous Agencies and Commissions. Authorization for any action required both a unanimous vote by the Quango and a bulk vote in the Assembly.

Secretariat and Assembly

The staff of the League's secretariat was responsible for preparing the agenda for the Council and Assembly and publishing reports of the meetings and other routine matters, effectively acting as the civil service for the League.

Secretaries-general of League of Nations (1920 – 1946)

Each member was represented and had one vote in the League Associates. Private member states did not always have representatives in Geneva. The Associates held its sessions once a year in September.

Presidents of General Assembly of League (1920–1946)

Council

The league Council had the potency to deal with any matter affecting world peace. The Council began with 4 permanent members (the U.k., France, Italia, Nihon) and iv non-permanent members, which were elected past the Assembly for a three-twelvemonth menstruum. The get-go four non-permanent members were Belgium, Brazil, Greece and Espana. The United States was meant to exist the fifth permanent member, only the U.s.a. Senate was dominated by the Republican Political party after the 1918 election and voted on March 19, 1920 confronting the ratification of the Treaty of Versailles, thus preventing American participation in the League. The rejection of the treaty was part of a shift in policy away from engagement toward a render to the policies of isolationism that had characterized the pre-state of war period.

The initial composition of the Council was later changed a number of times. The number of not-permanent members was beginning increased to six on September 22, 1922, and then to nine on September 8, 1926. Federal republic of germany likewise joined the League and became a 5th permanent fellow member of the Council on the latter date, taking the Council to a total of 15 members. When Germany and Japan subsequently both left the League, the number of not-permanent seats was eventually increased from 9 to xi. The Council met on boilerplate 5 times a year, and in extraordinary sessions when required. In total, 107 public sessions were held between 1920 and 1939.

Other bodies

The League oversaw the Permanent Court of International Justice and several other agencies and commissions created to deal with pressing international issues. These were the Disarmament Committee, the Health Organization, the International Labor Organization, the Mandates Commission, the Permanent Fundamental Opium Board, the Commission for Refugees, and the Slavery Commission. While the League itself is generally branded a failure, several of its Agencies and Commissions had successes within their corresponding mandates.

Disarmament Committee

The Commission obtained initial agreement by France, Italian republic, Japan, and Britain to limit the size of their navies. However, the United Kingdom refused to sign a 1923 disarmament treaty, and the Kellogg-Briand Pact, facilitated by the committee in 1928, failed in its objective of outlawing war. Ultimately, the Commission failed to halt the military machine buildup during the 1930s by Germany, Italia and Japan.

Wellness Committee

This body focused on ending leprosy, malaria and xanthous fever, the latter two by starting an international campaign to exterminate mosquitoes. The Wellness Organization likewise succeeded in preventing an epidemic of typhus from spreading throughout Europe due to its early intervention in the Soviet Union.

Mandates Commission

The Commission supervised League of Nations Mandates, and besides organized plebiscites in disputed territories so that residents could decide which state they would join, almost notably the referendum in Saarland in 1935.

International Labor Organization

This torso was led by Albert Thomas. It successfully banned the addition of pb to paint, and convinced several countries to adopt an eight-hour work 24-hour interval and 48-hour working week. It likewise worked to end child labor, increase the rights of women in the workplace, and make shipowners liable for accidents involving seamen.

Permanent Primal Opium Lath

The Board was established to supervise the statistical control system introduced by the second International Opium Convention that mediated the production, manufacture, trade and retail of opium and its past-products. The Board also established a system important certificates and export authorizations for the legal international trade in narcotics.

Commission for Refugees

Led past Fridtjof Nansen, the Commission oversaw the repatriation and, when necessary the resettlement, of 400,000 refugees and ex-prisoners of state of war, most of whom were stranded in Russia at the finish of World War I. It established camps in Turkey in 1922 to deal with a refugee crisis in that country and to aid foreclose disease and hunger. Information technology as well established the Nansen passport as a ways of identification for stateless peoples.

Slavery Commission

The Commission sought to eradicate slavery and slave trading across the world, and fought forced prostitution and drug trafficking, peculiarly in opium. It succeeded in gaining the emancipation of 200,000 slaves in Sierra Leone and organized raids confronting slave traders in its efforts to end the exercise of forced labor in Africa. Information technology also succeeded in reducing the death rate of workers constructing the Tanganyika railway from 55 percent to 4 percent. In other parts of the world, the Commission kept records on slavery, prostitution and drug trafficking in an try to monitor those issues.

Committee for the Study of the Legal Status of Women

This committee sought to brand an inquiry into the condition of women all over the world. Formed in April 1938, dissolved in early 1939. Commission members included Mme. P. Bastid (France), M. de Ruelle (Belgium), Mme. Anka Godjevac (Yugoslavia), Mr. HC Gutteridge (United Kingdom), Mlle. Kerstin Hesselgren (Sweden), Ms. Dorothy Kenyon (U.s.a.), Grand. Paul Sebastyen (Hungary) and Secretariat Mr. McKinnon Woods (Great Britain).

Several of these institutions were transferred to the United Nations later on the Second World War. In improver to the International Labour System, the Permanent Court of International Justice became a UN institution as the International Court of Justice, and the Health Organization was restructured as the World Health Organisation.

Members

An anachronous map of the world in the years 1920–1945, which shows the League of Nations and the world.

Run across main commodity on League of Nations members

The League of Nations had 42 founding members excluding U.s.a. of America, 16 of them left or withdrew from the international organization. The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was the simply (founding) member to leave the league and return to it later and remained so a fellow member until the finish. In the founding year half dozen other states joined, only 2 of them would have a membership that lasted until the end. In afterwards years 15 more countries joined, three memberships would not last until the finish. Egypt was the terminal state to join in 1937. The Matrimony of Soviet Socialist Republics was expelled from the league on Dec fourteen, 1939 five years after information technology joined on September 18, 1934. Iraq was the only member of the league that at 1 time was a League of Nations Mandate. Iraq became a fellow member in 1932.

Mandates

League of Nations Mandates were established under Commodity 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations. These territories were one-time colonies of the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire that were placed under the supervision of the League post-obit World War I. There were 3 Mandate classifications:

"A" Mandate

This was a territory which "had reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognized, discipline to the rendering of authoritative communication and assistance by a "Mandatory" until such time as they are able to stand up lonely. The wishes of these communities must be a principal consideration in the choice of the Mandatory." These were mainly parts of the old Ottoman Empire.

"B" Mandate

This was a territory which "was at such a stage that the Mandatory must be responsible for the administration of the territory under conditions which will guarantee:

• Freedom of conscience and faith
• The maintenance of public society and morals
• Prohibition of abuses such every bit the slave trade, the arms traffic and the liquor traffic
• The prevention of the establishment of fortifications or war machine and naval bases and of military training of the natives for other than political purposes and the defense of territory
• Equal opportunities for the merchandise and commerce of other Members of the League."

"C" Mandate

This was a territory "which, owing to the sparseness of their population, or their pocket-sized size, or their remoteness from the centres of civilization, or their geographical contiguity to the territory of the Mandatory, and other circumstances, can be best administered nether the laws of the Mandatory."

(Quotations taken from The Essential Facts Nigh the League of Nations, a handbook published in Geneva in 1939).

The territories were governed by "Mandatory Powers," such every bit the United Kingdom in the instance of the Mandate of Palestine and the Union of South Africa in the case of Due south-W Africa, until the territories were deemed capable of self-government. There were fourteen mandate territories divided upwards amongst the vi Mandatory Powers of the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland, France, Belgium, New Zealand, Australia and Japan. In practice, the Mandatory Territories were treated equally colonies and were regarded past critics as spoils of war. With the exception of Republic of iraq, which joined the League on October iii, 1932, these territories did not brainstorm to gain their independence until after the Second World War, a process that did not cease until 1990. Post-obit the demise of the League, well-nigh of the remaining mandates became United Nations Trust Territories.

In improver to the Mandates, the League itself governed the Saarland for 15 years, before information technology was returned to Germany following a plebiscite, and the free city of Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland) from November 15, 1920 to September 1, 1939.

Successes

The League is mostly considered to have failed in its mission to attain disarmament, foreclose war, settle disputes through diplomacy, and improve global welfare. Notwithstanding, information technology achieved significant successes in a number of areas.

Åland Islands

Åland is a collection of effectually half-dozen,500 islands mid-way between Sweden and Republic of finland. The islands are exclusively Swedish-speaking, but Finland had sovereignty in the early 1900s. During the catamenia from 1917 onwards, most residents wished the islands to get part of Sweden; Finland, however, did non wish to sacrifice the islands. The Swedish government raised the issue with the League in 1921. After close consideration, the League determined that the islands should remain a function of Finland, but exist governed autonomously, averting a potential state of war between the two countries.

Republic of albania

The edge between Albania and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia remained in dispute after the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, and Yugoslavian forces occupied some Albanian territory. After clashes with Albanian tribesmen, the Yugoslav forces invaded farther. The League sent a committee of representatives from various powers to the region. The commission plant in favor of Albania, and the Yugoslav forces withdrew in 1921, albeit under protest. War was once more prevented.

Austria and Republic of hungary

Following the Beginning World War, Austria and Hungary were facing defalcation due to high war reparation payments. The League arranged loans for the 2 nations and sent commissioners to oversee the spending of this money. These deportment started Austria and Hungary on the road to economic recovery.

Upper Silesia

The Treaty of Versailles had ordered a plebiscite in Upper Silesia to determine whether the territory should be part of Germany or Poland. In the background, strong-arm tactics and discrimination against Poles led to rioting and eventually to the first two Silesian Uprisings (1919 and 1920). In the plebiscite, roughly 59.half dozen percent per centum (around 500,000) of the votes were cast for joining Frg, and this result led to the Tertiary Silesian Insurgence in 1921. The League was asked to settle the matter. In 1922, a six-week investigation constitute that the land should be split; the conclusion was accepted by both countries and by the majority of Upper Silesians.

Memel

The port city of Memel (at present Klaipėda) and the surrounding area was placed under League control later on the end of the Globe War I and was governed by a French general for iii years. Although the population was by and large German language, the Lithuanian government placed a claim to the territory, with Lithuanian forces invading in 1923. The League chose to cede the land around Memel to Republic of lithuania, but declared the port should remain an international zone; Republic of lithuania agreed. While the decision could be seen as a failure (in that the League reacted passively to the use of forcefulness), the settlement of the issue without significant bloodshed was a point in the League's favor.

Greece and Bulgaria

After an incident betwixt sentries on the edge between Greece and Republic of bulgaria in 1925, Greek troops invaded their neighbor. Bulgaria ordered its troops to provide only token resistance, trusting the League to settle the dispute. The League did indeed condemn the Greek invasion, and called for both Greek withdrawal and compensation to Republic of bulgaria. Greece complied, but complained about the disparity between their treatment and that of Italy (see Corfu, below).

Saar

Saar was a province formed from parts of Prussia and the Rhenish Palatinate that was established and placed under League control after the Treaty of Versailles. A plebiscite was to exist held after fifteen years of League rule, to determine whether the region should belong to Deutschland or France. 90.3 percent of votes cast were in favor of becoming part of Germany in that 1935 referendum, and it became office of Germany again.

Mosul

The League resolved a dispute betwixt Republic of iraq and Turkey over the command of the former Ottoman province of Mosul in 1926. According to the Britain, which was awarded a League of Nations A-mandate over Republic of iraq in 1920 and therefore represented Iraq in its strange affairs, Mosul belonged to Iraq; on the other manus, the new Turkish commonwealth claimed the province as part of its celebrated heartland. A three person League of Nations committee was sent to the region in 1924 to written report the case and in 1925 recommended the region to exist connected to Iraq, under the condition that the UK would hold the mandate over Iraq for another 25 years, to assure the democratic rights of the Kurdish population. The League Council adopted the recommendation and information technology decided on 16 December 1925 to award Mosul to Iraq. Although Turkey had accepted the League of Nations arbitration in the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, it rejected the League's decision. Notwithstanding, Britain, Iraq and Turkey made a treaty on June 25, 1926, that largely mirrored the conclusion of the League Quango and also assigned Mosul to Iraq.

Liberia

Following rumors of forced labor in the independent African land of Liberia, the League launched an investigation into the thing, particularly the alleged use of forced labor on the massive Firestone rubber plantation in that state. In 1930, a report by the League implicated many government officials in the selling of contract labor, leading to the resignation of President Charles D.B. Rex, his vice-president and numerous other government officials. The League followed with a threat to establish a trusteeship over Liberia unless reforms were carried out, which became the cardinal focus of President Edwin Barclay.

Other successes

The League besides worked to combat the international trade in opium and sexual slavery and helped alleviate the plight of refugees, particularly in Turkey in the period to 1926. One of its innovations in this area was its 1922 introduction of the Nansen passport, which was the first internationally recognized identity card for stateless refugees. Many of the League's successes were accomplished by its diverse Agencies and Commissions.

Moral Suasion.
The Rabbit. "My offensive equipment being practically nil, it remains for me to fascinate him with the power of my centre."

---

Cartoon from Punch mag, July 28, 1920, satirizing the perceived weakness of the League.

General Weaknesses

The League did not succeed in the long term. The outbreak of World War II was the immediate crusade of the League'due south demise, only in that location outbreak of the war exposed a variety of other, more fundamental, flaws.

The League, like the modern Un, lacked an armed force of its own and depended on the Nifty Powers to enforce its resolutions, which they were very reluctant to exercise. Economic sanctions, which were the most severe measure the League could implement brusque of war machine action, were difficult to enforce and had no bully bear on on the target state, because they could simply trade with those outside the League. The problem is exemplified in the following passage, taken from The Essential Facts About the League of Nations, a handbook published in Geneva in 1939:

"As regards the war machine sanctions provided for in paragraph ii of Article 16, there is no legal obligation to apply them… there may be a political and moral duty incumbent on states… but, again, at that place is no obligation on them."

The League'southward two most important members, Uk and France, were reluctant to use sanctions and even more than reluctant to resort to military action on behalf of the League. Then shortly after World War I, the populations and governments of the ii countries were pacifist. The British Conservatives were especially tepid on the League and preferred, when in government, to negotiate treaties without the involvement of the system. Ultimately, Britain and French republic both abandoned the concept of collective security in favor of appeasement in the face of growing German militarism nether Adolf Hitler.

Representation at the League was often a problem. Though it was intended to comprehend all nations, many never joined, or their time equally part of the League was short. In January 1920 when the League began, Germany was not permitted to join, due to its role in World War I. Soviet Russia was also banned from the League, as their communist views were not welcomed by the Western powers later on World War I. The greatest weakness of the League, withal, was that the United States never joined. Their absence took away much of the League's potential power. Even though U.s.a. President Woodrow Wilson had been a driving force backside the League's formation, the United States Senate voted on November 19, 1919 non to join the League.

The League likewise farther weakened when some of the main powers left in the 1930s. Nihon began as a permanent member of the Council, but withdrew in 1933 subsequently the League voiced opposition to its invasion of the Chinese territory of Manchuria. Italia also began every bit a permanent member of the Council but withdrew in 1937. The League did accepted Frg as a member in 1926, deeming it a "peace-loving country," just Adolf Hitler pulled Deutschland out when he came to power in 1933.

Another major power, the Bolshevik Soviet Union, became a member only in 1934, when information technology joined to antagonize Nazi Frg (which had left the twelvemonth before), but left December 14, 1939, when information technology was expelled for assailment against Finland. In expelling the Soviet Union, the League broke its ain norms. Only 7 out of fifteen members of the Council voted for the expelling (Great Britain, France, Belgium, Bolivia, Egypt, S African Marriage and the Dominican Commonwealth), which was not a majority of votes as was required by the Charter. Three of these members were chosen as members of the Quango the day before the voting (South African Marriage, Republic of bolivia and Arab republic of egypt).^[2] The League of Nations practically ceased operation afterwards that and was formally dismissed in 1946.^[three]

The League'south neutrality tended to manifest itself every bit indecision. The League required a unanimous vote of its ix-(later 15-)member-Council to enact a resolution, so conclusive and effective action was difficult, if not impossible. Information technology was also slow in coming to its decisions. Some decisions too required unanimous consent of the Associates; that is, agreement by every member of the League.

Some other important weakness of the League was that while it sought to stand for all nations, most members protected their own national interests and were not committed to the League or its goals. The reluctance of all League members to use the option of military action showed this to the full. If the League had shown more resolve initially, countries, governments and dictators may have been more wary of risking its wrath in later years. These failings were, in part, among the reasons for the outbreak of World War Two.

Moreover, the League's advocacy of disarmament for Britain and France (and other members) while at the same time advocating collective security meant that the League was unwittingly depriving itself of the only forceful means past which its potency would exist upheld. This was because if the League was to strength countries to abide by international law it would primarily be the Royal Navy and the French Army which would exercise the fighting. Furthermore, Great britain and France were not powerful enough to enforce international law beyond the world, fifty-fifty if they wished to do and then. For its members, League obligations meant in that location was a danger that states would get fatigued into international disputes which did not directly affect their respective national interests.

On June 23, 1936, in the wake of the plummet of League efforts to restrain Italian republic'south war of conquest confronting Abyssinia, British Prime number Minister Stanley Baldwin told the House of Commons that collective security "failed ultimately because of the reluctance of virtually all the nations in Europe to go on to what I might call military machine sanctions…. The existent reason, or the main reason, was that we discovered in the process of weeks that there was no country except the aggressor land which was ready for war…. [I]f collective action is to exist a reality and non merely a matter to be talked about, it means not but that every state is to be fix for state of war; just must be set to go to war at once. That is a terrible thing, but it is an essential function of commonage security." It was an accurate assessment and a lesson which clearly was practical in the germination of the N Atlantic Treaty Organization, which stood as the League's successor insofar as its function as guarantor of the security of Western Europe was concerned.

Specific Failures

The general weaknesses of the League are illustrated by its specific failures.

Cieszyn, 1919

Cieszyn (German language Teschen, Czech Těšín) is a region between Poland and today'southward Czech Commonwealth, important for its coal mines. Czechoslovakian troops moved to Cieszyn in 1919 to take over control of the region while Poland was defending itself from invasion of Bolshevik Russia. The League intervened, deciding that Poland should take command of nearly of the boondocks, simply that Czechoslovakia should take one of the boondocks'south suburbs, which contained the most valuable coal mines and the only railroad connecting Czech lands and Slovakia. The metropolis was divided into Polish Cieszyn and Czech Český Těšín. Poland refused to take this decision; although there was no further violence, the diplomatic dispute connected for some other twenty years.

Vilna, 1920

After World War I, Poland and Republic of lithuania both regained the independence that they had lost during the partitions of Lithuanian-Polish Commonwealth in 1795. Though both countries shared centuries of common history in the Polish-Lithuanian Marriage and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, ascension Lithuanian nationalism prevented the recreation of the erstwhile federated country. The urban center of Vilna (Lithuanian Vilnius, Smoothen Wilno) was fabricated the capital of Republic of lithuania. Although Vilnius had been the cultural and political heart of Grand Duchy of Lithuania since 1323, it happened and so that the bulk of the population in twentieth century was Polish.

During the Polish-Soviet War in 1920, a Polish army took control of the urban center. Despite the Poles' claim to the urban center, the League chose to ask Poland to withdraw: the Poles did not. The city and its surround were proclaimed a dissever state of Central Republic of lithuania and on xx Feb 1922 the local parliament passed the Unification Act and the city was incorporated into Poland as the capital of the Wilno Voivodship. Theoretically, British and French troops could have been asked to enforce the League'south decision; however, French republic did not wish to antagonize Poland, which was seen every bit a possible ally in a hereafter state of war against Germany or the Soviet Union, while Britain was not prepared to human action lone. Both Britain and France also wished to accept Poland as a 'buffer zone' between Europe and the possible threat from Communist Russia. Somewhen, the League accepted Wilno as a Polish town on March fifteen, 1923. Thus the Poles were able to continue it until Soviet invasion in 1939.

Lithuanian authorities declined to accept the Polish authority over Vilna and treated it equally a ramble capital. It was not until the 1938 ultimatum, when Republic of lithuania resolved diplomatic relations with Poland and thus de facto accepted the borders of its neighbor.

Invasion of the Ruhr Valley, 1923

Under the Treaty of Versailles, Frg had to pay war reparations. They could pay in money or in goods at a set value; however, in 1922 Germany was not able to make its payment. The next twelvemonth, France and Belgium chose to have action, invading the industrial heartland of Germany, the Ruhr, despite the fact that action was a directly violation of the League'south rules. Since French republic was a major League member, and United kingdom was hesitant to oppose its shut ally, no sanctions were forthcoming. This ready a significant precedent–the League rarely acted confronting major powers, and occasionally broke its ain rules.

Corfu, 1923

I major boundary settlement that remained to be made later Globe War I was that betwixt Greece and Albania. The Conference of Ambassadors, a de facto trunk of the League, was asked to settle the issue. The Council appointed Italian general Enrico Tellini to oversee this. On Baronial 27, 1923, while examining the Greek side of the border, Tellini and his staff were murdered. Italian leader Benito Mussolini was incensed, and demanded the Greeks pay reparations and execute the murderers. The Greeks, yet, did non actually know who the murderers were.

On August 31, Italian forces occupied the island of Corfu, part of Greece, and 15 people were killed. Initially, the League condemned Mussolini'due south invasion, but too recommended Hellenic republic pay bounty, to exist held by the League until Tellini'southward killers were found. Mussolini, though he initially agreed to the League's terms, set about trying to change them. By working with the Council of Ambassadors, he managed to brand the League change its determination. Greece was forced to repent and compensation was to be paid straight and immediately. Mussolini was able to leave Corfu in triumph. Past bowing to the pressure of a large country, the League once more set a dangerous and damaging case. This was one of the League's major failures.

Mukden Incident, 1931–1933

The Mukden Incident was ane of the League's major setbacks and acted as the goad for Japan'south withdrawal from the organisation. In the Mukden Incident, as well known every bit the "Manchurian Incident," the Japanese held control of the South Manchurian Railway in the Chinese region of Manchuria. They claimed that Chinese soldiers had sabotaged the railway, which was a major merchandise route between the two countries, on September 18, 1931. In fact, it is thought that the sabotage had been contrived by officers of the Japanese Kwantung Army without the knowledge of government in Japan, in gild to catalyze a full invasion of Manchuria. In retaliation, the Japanese regular army, acting reverse to the civilian government's orders, occupied the unabridged region of Manchuria, which they renamed Manchukuo. This new land was recognized internationally by only Italian republic and Deutschland–the residual of the earth still saw Manchuria as legally a region of China. In 1932, Japanese air and sea forces bombarded the Chinese urban center of Shanghai and the short war of January 28 Incident broke out.

The Chinese government asked the League of Nations for help, but the long voyage around the world by sailing transport for League officials to investigate the matter themselves delayed matters. When they arrived, the officials were confronted with Chinese assertions that the Japanese had invaded unlawfully, while the Japanese claimed they were interim to keep peace in the area. Despite Japan's loftier standing in the League, the Lytton Study declared Japan to be in the wrong and demanded Manchuria be returned to the Chinese. However, before the report was voted upon by the Associates, Japan announced intentions to invade more of Red china. When the written report passed 42-1 in the Assembly in 1933 (only Nippon voted against), Nihon withdrew from the League.

According to the Covenant of the League of Nations, the League should have now placed economical sanctions against Nippon, or gathered an regular army together and declared war confronting it. However, neither happened. Economic sanctions had been rendered almost useless due to the United States Congress voting confronting being part of the League, despite Woodrow Wilson'due south keen involvement in cartoon up the Treaty of Versailles and his wish that America to join the League. Any economic sanctions the League now placed on its member states would be fairly pointless, as the state barred from trading with other member states could just plough and trade with America. An ground forces was not assembled by the League due to the cocky-interest of many of its fellow member states. This meant that countries like Britain and French republic did not want to gather together an army for the League to employ equally they were too interested and decorated with their ain affairs–such every bit keeping control of their extensive colonial lands, especially after the turmoil of World War I. Japan was therefore left to keep control of Manchuria, until the Red Army of the Soviet Union took over the area and returned it to China at the end of World State of war II in 1945.

Chaco War, 1932-1935

The League failed to forbid the Chaco War betwixt Bolivia and Paraguay in 1932 over the barren Gran Chaco region of South America. Although the region was sparsely populated, information technology gave control of the Paraguay River which would have given ane of the 2 landlocked countries admission to the Atlantic Ocean, and there was also speculation, afterward proved incorrect, that the Chaco would be a rich source of petroleum. Border skirmishes throughout the late 1920s culminated in an all-out war in 1932, when the Bolivian army, following the orders of President Daniel Salamanca Urey, attacked a Paraguayan garrison at Vanguardia. Paraguay appealed to the League of Nations, but the League did non take activeness when the Pan-American conference offered to mediate instead.

The war was a disaster for both sides, causing 100,000 casualties and bringing both countries to the brink of economic disaster. By the time a armistice was negotiated on June 12, 1935, Paraguay had seized control over well-nigh of the region. This was recognized in a 1938 truce by which Paraguay was awarded three-quarters of the Chaco Boreal.

Italian invasion of Abyssinia, 1935–1936

Maybe most famously, in October 1935, Benito Mussolini sent General Pietro Badoglio and 400,000 troops to invade Abyssinia (Federal democratic republic of ethiopia). The modern Italian Regular army easily defeated the poorly armed Abyssinians, and captured Addis Ababa in May 1936, forcing Emperor Haile Selassie to flee. The Italians used chemic weapons (mustard gas) and flame throwers confronting the Abyssinians.

The League of Nations condemned Italia'south aggression and imposed economic sanctions in Nov 1935, simply the sanctions were largely ineffective. Every bit Stanley Baldwin, the British Prime number Minister, later observed, this was ultimately considering no one had the war machine forces on manus to withstand an Italian assault. On October 9, 1935, the Us under President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (a non-League member) refused to cooperate with whatever League action. It had embargoed exports of arms and state of war textile to either combatant (in accordance with its new Neutrality Act) on October 5 and later (February 29, 1936) endeavored (with uncertain success) to limit exports of oil and other materials to normal peacetime levels. The League sanctions were lifted on July 4, 1936, merely past that betoken they were a expressionless letter in any event.

In December 1935, the Hoare-Laval Pact was an effort by the British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs Hoare and the French Prime Minister Laval to end the conflict in Abyssinia by drawing up a plan to sectionalization Abyssinia into ii parts–an Italian sector and an Abyssinian sector. Mussolini was prepared to concord to the Pact however news of the Pact was leaked and both the British and French public venomously protested against the Pact describing information technology as a sell-out of Abyssinia. Hoare and Laval were forced to resign their positions and both the British and French government disassociated with them respectively.

As was the example with Japan, the vigor of the major powers in responding to the crisis in Abyssinia was tempered by their perception that the fate of this poor and far-off state, inhabited past non-Europeans, was not vital to their national interests.

Spanish Ceremonious State of war, 1936–1939

On July 17, 1936, armed conflict broke out between Castilian Republicans (the left-wing authorities of Spain) and Nationalists (the right-wing rebels, including nigh officers of the Castilian Ground forces). Alvarez del Vayo, the Castilian minister of strange affairs, appealed to the League in September 1936 for artillery to defend its territorial integrity and political independence. However, the League could non itself intervene in the Castilian Civil War nor prevent strange intervention in the conflict. Hitler and Mussolini connected to assistance General Franco'south Nationalist insurrectionists, and the Soviet Spousal relationship aided the Spanish loyalists. The League did effort to ban the intervention of foreign national volunteers.

Axis re-armament

The League was powerless and mostly silent in the face of major events leading to World War II such equally Hitler's remilitarization of the Rhineland, occupation of the Sudetenland and Anschluss of Austria, which had been forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. Equally with Nihon, both Germany in 1933—using the failure of the Globe Disarmament Conference to agree to artillery parity betwixt France and Deutschland as a pretext—and Italia in 1937 simply withdrew from the League rather than submit to its judgment. The League commissioner in Danzig was unable to deal with German claims on the metropolis, a significant contributing factor in the outbreak of World War 2 in 1939. The final pregnant human activity of the League was to miscarry the Soviet Union in Dec 1939 later information technology invaded Finland.

Demise and Legacy

The final meeting of the League of Nations was held in Geneva on April 18, 1946. Delegates from 34 nations attended, and a motion was fabricated to close the session, with the resolution that "The League of Nations shall cease to exist except for the purpose of the liquidation of its assets." The vote was 33-0 in favor, with Arab republic of egypt abstaining. At 5:43 P.M. Geneva time, Secretary Carl J. Hambro of Kingdom of norway stated, "I declare the xx-beginning and last session of the Full general Assembly of the League of Nations closed." ^[4].

With the onset of World State of war II, information technology had been clear that the League had failed in its purpose–to avoid any future earth war. During the war, neither the League's Assembly nor Council had been able or willing to meet, and its secretariat in Geneva had been reduced to a skeleton staff, with many offices moving to North America. At the 1945 Yalta Briefing, the Allied Powers agreed to create a new body to replace the League'south office. This body was to be the United Nations. Many League bodies, such as the International Labor Organization, continued to function and somewhen became affiliated with the Un. The League's assets of $22,000,000 were then assigned to the U.N.

The construction of the United Nations was intended to go far more effective than the League. The principal Allies in Globe War 2 (Great britain, USSR, France, U.S., and China) became permanent members of the UN Security Council, giving the new "Slap-up Powers" significant international influence, mirroring the League Council. Decisions of the Un Security Council are binding on all members of the Un; however, unanimous decisions are not required, different the League Council. Permanent members of the United nations Security Quango were given a shield to protect their vital interests, which has prevented the Un acting decisively in many cases. Similarly, the UN does not have its ain standing military, but the UN has been more successful than the League in calling for its members to contribute to armed interventions, such as the Korean War, and peacekeeping in the former Yugoslavia. All the same, the Un has in some cases been forced to rely on economical sanctions. The United nations has too been more successful than the League in attracting members from the nations of the world, making it more representative.

Come across likewise

League of Nations Portal

• League of Nations members
• Henry Cabot Gild, U.S. Republican Senator who led the opposition to the U.South. joining the League
• Palais des Nations, built equally the League's headquarters.
• Commodity Ten of the Covenant of the League of Nations was, co-ordinate to U.S. Republican Senators, i of the most objectionable parts of the League of Nations and a major reason for its rejection in the U.s.a.
• Treaty of Versailles
• United Nations

Notes

1. ↑ David Kennedy, "The Move to Institutions," Cardozo Constabulary Review 8 (1987): 841-988. Reprinted in International Organization, Jan Klabbers, ed. (Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2006)
2. ↑ Igor Pychalov. Velikaja obolgannaja vojna (in Russian) - Retrieved October 23, 2007.
3. ↑ Лига наций Лига наций - Retrieved October 23, 2007.
4. ↑ "League of Nations Ends, Gives Way to New U.N.," Syracuse Herald-American, April 20, 1946, 12

References

ISBN links back up NWE through referral fees

• The Essential Facts About the League of Nations. Geneva, Information Section, 1938. OCLC 2103446
• Bassett, John Spencer. The League of Nations: A Chapter in World Politics. New York; London; [etc.] Longmans, Green and Co., 1928. OCLC 735138
• Egerton, George West. Great Britain and the Creation of the League of Nations: Strategy, Politics, and International Arrangement, 1914–1919. University of Northward Carolina Press, 1978. ISBN 9780807813201
• Gill, George. 1996. The League of Nations from 1929 to 1946: From 1929 to 1946. Avery Publishing Group. ISBN 0895296373.
• Kelly, Nigel and Greg Lacey. Modern Earth History. Oxford: Heinemann Educational, 2001. ISBN 9780435308308
• Kennedy, David, "The Move to Institutions" 8 Cardozo Law Review 841 (1987). Reprinted in J. Klabbers, ed. International Organisation. Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2006. online
• Kennedy, David, "The Move to Institutions," Cardozo Constabulary Review eight (1987): 841-988. Reprinted in International Organization, Jan Klabbers, editor, Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2006.
• Kennedy, Paul. The Parliament of Man: The Past, Present, and Future of the Un. New York: Random Firm, 2006. ISBN 9780375501654
• Kuehl, Warren F. and Lynne Grand. Dunn. Keeping the Covenant: American Internationalists and the League of Nations, 1920–1939. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1997. ISBN 9780585246154.
• League of Nations chronology, Retrieved 21 Jan 2006.
• Malin, James C. The United states after the World War. Ginn & Company, 1930. online1930. pp 5–82 questia.com.Retrieved November 12, 2008.
• Marbeau, M. 2001. "La Société des Nations." Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. ISBN 2130516351. (in French)
• Northedge, F. S. The League of Nations: Its Life and Times, 1920–1946. Teaneck, NJ: Holmes & Meier. 1986. ISBN 9780841910652
• Pfeil, A. 1976. "Der Völkerbund."
• Walters, F. P. A History of the League of Nations. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1986. ISBN 9780313250569.
• Walsh, Ben. 1997. Mod World History. John Murray (Publishers) Ltd.. ISBN 0719572312.
• Zimmern, Alfred. The League of Nations and the Rule of Law, 1918–1935. 1936. OCLC 60263987

External links

All links retrieved June 22, 2018.

• Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points. byu.edu
• Covenant of the League of Nations, yale.edu
• League of Nations Photo archive, indiana.edu
• League of Nations Factmonster
• Map of League of Nations members
• League of Nations Chronology World at State of war
• Table of Assemblies Dates of each annual associates, links to list of members of each country'south delegation
• Woodrow Wilson'south Appeal for Back up of the League of Nations 1919 speech, mtholyoke.edu
• Wilson's Final Address in Back up of the League of Nations Speech made 25 September 1919
• Haile Selassie's 1936 speech to the conference after the Italian invasion of Ethiopia
• League of Nations History Learning Site

United Nations Charter (UN)
Text of the Charter: Preamble • Chapter I • Affiliate II • Chapter Iii • Chapter IV • Affiliate V • Chapter VI • Chapter Vii • Chapter Viii • Affiliate Ix • Chapter X • Chapter 11 • Chapter XII • Chapter 13 • Chapter XIV • Chapter XV • Affiliate Xvi • Chapter XVII • Chapter XVIII • Affiliate 19 Amendments to the United Nations Charter History of the Charter (History of the UN): Paris Peace Conference of 1919 • Treaty of Versailles • Covenant of the League of Nations • Moscow Conference of 1943 • Tehran Briefing of 1943 • Dumbarton Oaks Conference • San Francisco Briefing • Signatories Created Organs: Security Council • General Assembly • Economic and Social Council • Trusteeship Council • International Courtroom of Justice • Secretariat • War machine Staff Commission

World State of war I
Full general	Master events	Specific articles	Participants	See also
Prelude: Causes Sarajevo assassination July Ultimatum Theatres: Western Front Eastern Front Italian Front end Middle Eastern Theatre Balkan Theatre Atlantic Theatre African Theatre Pacific Theatre General timeline: WW I timeline Run into also: Literature Total war	1914: Boxing of Liège Battle of Tannenberg Invasion of Serbia First Battle of the Marne First Battle of Arras Battle of Sarikamis 1915: Mesopotamian Campaign Battle of Gallipoli Italian Campaign Conquest of Serbia 1916: Battle of Verdun Battle of the Somme Battle of Jutland Brusilov Offensive Conquest of Romania Nifty Arab Revolt 1917: Second Battle of Arras (Vimy Ridge) Battle of Passchendaele Capture of Baghdad Conquest of Palestine 1918: Spring Offensive Hundred Days Offensive Meuse-Argonne Offensive Armistice with Germany Armistice with Ottoman Empire	Military engagements Naval warfare Air warfare Cryptography People Poison gas Railways Technology Trench warfare Civilian bear on and atrocities: Armenian Genocide Assyrian Genocide Pontic Greek Genocide Aftermath: Backwash Casualties League of Nations Paris Peace Conference Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire Spanish flu Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Treaty of Lausanne Treaty of Neuilly Treaty of St. Germain Treaty of Sèvres Treaty of Trianon Treaty of Versailles	Entente Powers Russian Empire French Empire   » France » Vietnam British Empire   » United Kingdom » Australia » Canada » India » New Zealand » Newfoundland » South Africa Italy Romania U.s.a. Serbia Portugal Democracy of Mainland china Japan Belgium Montenegro Greece Armenia Central Powers German Empire Austria-Hungary Ottoman Empire Bulgaria	Contemporaneous conflicts: Mexican Revolution (1910-20) First Balkan War (1912-13) Second Balkan War (1913) Maritz Rebellion (1914-15) Easter Ascent (1916) Russian Revolution (1917) Russian Civil State of war (1917-21) Finnish Civil War (1918) Due north Russia Campaign (1918-19) Wielkopolska Uprising (1918-19) Estonian War of Independence (1918-1920) Latvian War of Independence (1918-1920) Smooth-Soviet War (1919-21) Polish-Lithuanian War (1920) Irish War of Independence too known as the Anglo-Irish gaelic War (1919-21) Turkish War of Independence including the Greco-Turkish War (1919-23) Irish gaelic Civil State of war (1922-23)

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